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Poonam and her sister-in-law Ritika, who live next door to each other, keep their children indoors during the hottest hours of the day. However, the tin and concrete roofs of their homes trap heat, and the absence of windows leaves almost no ventilation. Social expectations add another burden. Unlike men, they cannot switch to lighter or shorter clothing and are expected to wear multiple layers.
Pointing to her synthetic three-piece outfit consisting of a long tunic, ankle-length trousers and a scarf, Poonam said the material causes excessive sweating and does not absorb moisture. Experts told Dialogue Earth that as heatwaves become more frequent and severe, breathable fabrics such as cotton and linen are becoming an important form of adaptation. Yet for many low-income families, these materials remain unaffordable because they cost nearly twice as much as synthetic alternatives.
Poonam and Ritika belong to the Dalit community, which has historically faced social oppression. Their father-in-law, Paale Ram, completed high school but was compelled into sanitation work because of caste-based discrimination. Like his father and grandfather, he cleaned sewers, and his sons continue the same occupation. The economic hardships created by generations of exclusion from stable and better-paid employment have left the family with little money beyond essential expenses.
Many workers most exposed to extreme heat in Delhi, including sanitation employees and informal labourers, belong to historically marginalised caste communities. A 2024 analysis by The Hindu found that nearly 70 per cent of sewer and septic tank workers in India come from oppressed castes.
Afrose Farid, a professor in the Department of Textile Design at Kerala's National Institute of Fashion Technology, said clothing often becomes a secondary concern when income is limited and households must prioritise food and shelter. She noted that natural fabrics such as cotton and linen absorb moisture and provide better ventilation, while synthetic materials like polyester and nylon become uncomfortable in extreme heat, especially for people working outdoors or living in poorly ventilated homes.
The price difference between cotton and synthetic clothing remains a major barrier. Paale Ram earns around 35,000 Indian rupees per month, while Poonam's husband works as a bus conductor and also cleans sewers, earning up to 40,000 Indian rupees monthly. Supporting a family of seven and financing the education of three children leaves little money for clothing.
Riya, who also belongs to a Dalit family in Shahbad Dairy, said a cotton outfit costs more than 1,000 Indian rupees, while synthetic or blended fabric clothing is available for about 300 Indian rupees. Her husband earns 15,000 Indian rupees a month working on the city's sewer lines, and the couple have five children. Buying breathable clothing has become an unexpected financial burden.
Bezwada Wilson, national convenor of the Safai Karmachari Andolan, which campaigns for the eradication of manual scavenging, said unequal access to comfortable clothing is linked not only to poverty but also to caste. Farid noted that clothing had historically been used as an instrument of caste discrimination. Earlier forms of discrimination imposed restrictions to humiliate oppressed communities, whereas economic hardship now limits their access to proper clothing.
Anti-caste activist and designer Jay Sagathia said class and caste in India remain deeply interconnected. Wilson described the situation as a form of double discrimination in which economic deprivation and caste-based exclusion determine access to services, infrastructure and dignity. He added that local markets near marginalised communities often do not stock cotton clothing because sellers assume customers cannot afford it.
Despite India being one of the world's largest cotton producers, employing up to 50 million people, natural fabrics remain beyond the reach of many poor families. Sagathia recalled visiting craft-producing communities in Gujarat where artisans from marginalised groups created expensive garments that they themselves could not afford to wear.
Meanwhile, synthetic fabrics could become even more widespread. In 2021, the government introduced incentives worth more than 10,000 crore Indian rupees to boost the production of man-made fabrics including polyester, acrylic and viscose. Government officials recently told industry publication Apparel Resources that the programme could be extended for several more years to accommodate additional applicants.
For 60-year-old Paale Ram, heat exposure is a daily reality. He spends five to six hours wearing a synthetic work vest while removing waste from open drains under the scorching sun. He said the vest traps heat and makes breathing difficult. This summer he fainted twice and frequently experienced dizziness, eye pain and diarrhoea, symptoms commonly associated with heat exhaustion.
Paale Ram owns only two worn cotton tunic-and-trouser sets, which he alternates while working. He said he does not know when he will be able to buy another set.
Sagathia said such suffering reflects whose labour and comfort society values. Heat protection, he argued, is rarely treated as part of occupational safety for informal workers, many of whom come from oppressed castes.
Wilson said poor housing, inadequate nutrition, irregular sleep and restricted access to drinking water further increase heat risks. He added that caste discrimination often prevents sanitation workers from asking for water while on duty because practices linked to untouchability continue to persist.
Conditions at home provide little relief. After months of saving, the family purchased a second-hand air cooler, but Poonam said it only makes the air more humid.
Women face an additional burden. According to Farid, expectations surrounding modesty require women to wear multiple layers, including saris, scarves or uniforms over other garments, making them more vulnerable to heat. Poonam said the family ensures that the children wear cotton clothes because they are more sensitive to high temperatures.
Wilson said dependence on synthetic fabrics is often driven by necessity rather than preference. Polyester and nylon garments last longer and reduce the need for frequent purchases. Market research by consulting firm IMARC shows that polyester dominates India's clothing market, accounting for nearly 62 per cent of demand because of its durability, affordability and versatility.
Families interviewed by Dialogue Earth acknowledged that cotton becomes softer and more comfortable after repeated washing. However, Poonam said clothing maintenance is difficult because the family's water supply is only half of what they require, and most available water is reserved for drinking.
Wilson warned that extreme heat is creating an additional layer of vulnerability for oppressed communities. He and Farid said discussions about protection from heat often focus on infrastructure such as fans, air coolers and air conditioners, while clothing is rarely viewed as a protective measure.
Farid said workers who spend long hours outdoors under extreme weather conditions are receiving inadequate attention despite increasing risks from climate change. She stressed the need for clothing designed specifically for such conditions.
Sagathia said clothing should be recognised as a basic necessity alongside food and housing. However, experts cautioned against treating natural fibres as a complete solution. Farid explained that sweat evaporates slowly from fabric, causing clothes to become heavy. She said carefully blended materials that combine the strengths of different fibres could provide greater comfort while remaining more affordable than pure cotton.
Back in Shahbad Dairy, Ritika struggled to calm her four-month-old child in front of the air cooler. The baby continued crying throughout the afternoon as the heat lingered. Every few months, Ritika's mother sends cotton clothing for the children. Ritika said they cannot tolerate synthetic fabrics because they become irritated, remove the garments and struggle to sleep.
The experiences of families in Shahbad Dairy reveal how extreme heat, poverty and caste-based inequalities combine to create a growing crisis, where even access to comfortable clothing becomes a matter of survival rather than choice.
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